From: "John Woodbridge" To: Subject: RE: aus-wx: Interesting Wx for SE QLD?? Date: Tue, 2 May 2000 00:14:35 +1000 X-Mailer: Microsoft Outlook CWS, Build 9.0.2416 (9.0.2910.0) Importance: Normal Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Hi Anthony, My 2 cents worth. I think it is warm cored, i.e., tropical low, evidenced by the temp profile change as it approached, cloud/rain generally confined to the low levels of the atmosphere with strongest winds close to the surface, supported by observed shear. I think it originated from the low off the south eastern end of PNG about a week and half ago, which drifted towards New Caledonia, then turned SW. John. >snip ... As Clyve mentioned, this low does appear to look somewhat extra-tropical. However during today I concluded to myself that this was a tropical low due to the following reasons: - Standing in the wind was rather warm, it was not cool/cold at all, just warm. Normally SE'ers are cool/cold - and while this will sound funny to some, you can feel the difference between a TC SE'er, and a ridge SE'er. And standing out on the beach, I thought it felt like a TC SE'er. - Warm rain about, I was amazed to see the thermometer *climb* to 24.3C during a shower here this morning. - The low formed and remained north of the 300mb ridge (although the 'wildcard' in this is, was it originally caused from a 500mb upper level trough that moved through about 5 days ago???) - The upper levels warmed considerably on the approaching of the low. With our 500mb temp going to 0C at one stage!!! Certainly a sign of tropical air. The 300mb temperature has been sitting between -27C and -30C for the past few days. I think that perhaps the low exhibits the characeristics of a Hybrid TC. A Hybrid TC has its maximum winds well away from the centre, and generally an extended area of gales on one side. Gales extended out to 740km from the low yesterday, but this was generally only on the southern half. Gales would barely exist to 100km from the centre on the northern side. However, the circulation is still completely present, you can see the LLCC quite nicely on GMSD. I'm open and welcome to anyone else's comments/suggestions though. +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ X-Sender: carls at ford.ace-net.com.au Date: Tue, 2 May 2000 01:51:43 +1000 To: aussie-weather at world.std.com From: Carl Smith Subject: RE: aus-wx: Interesting Wx for SE QLD?? Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Hi Anthony and All. >Hi Anthony, > >My 2 cents worth. I think it is warm cored, i.e., tropical low, evidenced >by the temp profile change as it approached, cloud/rain generally confined >to >the low levels of the atmosphere with strongest winds close to the surface, >supported by observed shear. I think it originated from the low off the >south eastern end of PNG about a week and half ago, which drifted towards >New Caledonia, then turned SW. > >John. I agree with John that this is a tropical low, and it is the same one that began near PNG, which was named TD 20F by the TCWC in Fiji a few days back. I have been observing it throughout it's history. The wind is too warm for it to be anything but a tropical low. I am sitting here inside on the Gold Coast with my shirt off and sweating, so the air temperature is quite warm and humidity is high. What do you think are the chances of this low travelling up the coast then out to sea and re-developing into a late season TC? Also, what are the chances of the other tropical low NW of New Caledonia turning SW and heading towards SE Qld? It also began near PNG and has followed a similar path to TD 20F so far, and is subject to a TCFA by JTWC and a gale warning from the TCWC in Fiji. Regards, Carl. >>snip > >... > >As Clyve mentioned, this low does appear to look somewhat >extra-tropical. However during today I concluded to myself that this >was a tropical low due to the following reasons: > >- Standing in the wind was rather warm, it was not cool/cold at all, >just warm. Normally SE'ers are cool/cold - and while this will sound >funny to some, you can feel the difference between a TC SE'er, and a >ridge SE'er. And standing out on the beach, I thought it felt like a >TC SE'er. >- Warm rain about, I was amazed to see the thermometer *climb* to >24.3C during a shower here this morning. >- The low formed and remained north of the 300mb ridge (although the >'wildcard' in this is, was it originally caused from a 500mb upper >level trough that moved through about 5 days ago???) >- The upper levels warmed considerably on the approaching of the >low. With our 500mb temp going to 0C at one stage!!! Certainly a >sign of tropical air. The 300mb temperature has been sitting between >-27C and -30C for the past few days. > >I think that perhaps the low exhibits the characeristics of a Hybrid >TC. A Hybrid TC has its maximum winds well away from the centre, and >generally an extended area of gales on one side. Gales extended out to >740km from the low yesterday, but this was generally only on the >southern half. Gales would barely exist to 100km from the centre on the >northern side. However, the circulation is still completely present, >you can see the LLCC quite nicely on GMSD. > >I'm open and welcome to anyone else's comments/suggestions though. +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ From: "Les Crossan" To: "aus-wx" , "Jane ONeill" Subject: aus-wx: ASWA International / MSC hits Wokingham and Bracknell this Wednesday Date: Mon, 1 May 2000 19:40:01 +0100 Organization: Cosmic EuroCon - note all times are always GMT X-Mailer: Microsoft Outlook Express 5.00.2615.200 Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com
Everybody:
 
(ever so slightly off topic)
 
As Les (UK) is working in the south of England this week I've decided to attempt to photograph myself wearing my last years ASWA tee outside the UKMO at Bracknell and also at the place where it all began - Wokingham, where the supercell structure was first discovered / identified from radar and observational data.
 
Pray for action, please, it'd be nice if I had a whomping great TS, FC or tornado in the background (:
 
Once back home on Friday I'll get the images onto my PC and then email them to my state rep, hopefully for inclusion in the MSC mugshots page (hint, hint)
 
Les (UK)
 
------------------------------------------------------
Les Crossan
Wallsend, Tyne & Wear, UK 54-59N 01-30W
UK Storm Chaser / Severe Weather Enthusiast
see the Wallsend StormCam at:
http://freespace.virgin.net/les.crossan/webcam.htm
Melbourne Storm Chasers (MSC) - Victoria, AUS
http://www.rubix.net.au/~cadence/
Australian Severe Weather Association (ASWA) - AUS
http://www.severeweather.asn.au/
Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) - UK
Thunderstorm Census Organisation (TCO) - UK
http://www.torro.org.uk/
Email: les.NOSPAMcrossan at virgin.net (remove NOSPAM)
ICQ: 17296776
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From: "John Woodbridge" To: Subject: RE: aus-wx: Interesting Wx for SE QLD?? Date: Tue, 2 May 2000 10:02:50 +1000 X-Mailer: Microsoft Outlook CWS, Build 9.0.2416 (9.0.2910.0) Importance: Normal Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Hi Carl, At last look MRF develops the second low along a similar path, but both GASP and MRF have the first low petering out close to the coast well north of Frazer. BoM chart has it moving North. With these things there is some guesswork involved I guess, they seem to have a mind of their own. Judging from our wind direction which has backed a little more Easterley this morning, the low has moved closer to the coast. The wind is stronger this morning with heavier showers, which suggests that either the low is closer or there is anticyclogenesis to the south. Anyhow the pressure gradient is steeper. The bar is up a little this morning suggesting the latter explanation is correct. Plenty of rain now at Mt. Crosby, it is mud city, 23mm yesterday and another 17mm or so since midnight. A week ago, my pool was 8cm from the top and this morning it is very close to overflowing. It certainly was a soggy muddy trip out to the rainguage at midnight last night, but rewarded by capture and a photo of my first Great Barred-frog (Mixophyes fasciolatus)! Regards, John, >snip What do you think are the chances of this low travelling up the coast then out to sea and re-developing into a late season TC? Also, what are the chances of the other tropical low NW of New Caledonia turning SW and heading towards SE Qld? It also began near PNG and has followed a similar path to TD 20F so far, and is subject to a TCFA by JTWC and a gale warning from the TCWC in Fiji. Regards, Carl. +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ X-Originating-IP: [203.36.248.18] From: "Kevin Phyland" To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Subject: aus-wx: Website update... Date: Tue, 02 May 2000 12:21:46 EST Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Hi every1, I've updated the Australian Region Synoptic archive for April: http://www3.50megs/wycheproof/ and I've added a new section (Section H: Historical Archives) to the Wild Weather World site. It consists of old newspaper reports, photos, maps, related synoptic charts etc... http://www.fortunecity.com/greenfield/manchester/4/ Comments on this section would be appreciated. Cheers, Kevin from Wycheproof. ________________________________________________________________________ Get Your Private, Free E-mail from MSN Hotmail at http://www.hotmail.com +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ X-Originating-IP: [203.36.248.18] From: "Kevin Phyland" To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Subject: Re: aus-wx: Website update...Errata Date: Tue, 02 May 2000 13:48:07 EST Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Oops!!! The first URL should be: http://www3.50megs.com/wycheproof Kevin. > >Hi every1, > >I've updated the Australian Region Synoptic archive for April: > >http://www3.50megs/wycheproof/ ________________________________________________________________________ Get Your Private, Free E-mail from MSN Hotmail at http://www.hotmail.com +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ X-Sender: carls at ford.ace-net.com.au Date: Tue, 2 May 2000 15:55:18 +1000 To: aussie-weather at world.std.com From: Carl Smith Subject: RE: aus-wx: Interesting Wx for SE QLD?? Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Hi John and All. >Hi Carl, > >At last look MRF develops the second low along a similar path, but both GASP >and MRF have the first low petering out close to the coast well north of >Frazer. >BoM chart has it moving North. With these things there is some guesswork >involved I guess, they seem to have a mind of their own. The second low is indeed headed for the Central Queensland coast, although JTWC has cancelled the TCFA alert on it. The first low is N of St Lawrence and weakening. See BoM info below. The latest satpics show the 2nd low as a hook area moving towards Central Qld, while the 1st low is barely identifiable. >Judging from our wind direction which has backed a little more Easterley >this morning, the low has moved closer to the coast. The wind is stronger >this morning with heavier showers, which suggests that either the low is >closer or there is anticyclogenesis to the south. Anyhow the pressure >gradient is steeper. The bar is up a little this morning suggesting the >latter explanation is correct. I think the increasing winds have something to do with the pressure gradient between the 2nd low and the anticyclogenesis to the south moving on the coast as the 2nd low approaches. The wind from the 1st low eased a little during the night, but wind has increased here again today with the approach of the 2nd low. >Plenty of rain now at Mt. Crosby, it is mud city, 23mm yesterday and >another 17mm or so since midnight. A week ago, my pool was 8cm from the >top and this morning it is very close to overflowing. It certainly was a >soggy >muddy trip out to the rainguage at midnight last night, but rewarded by >capture and a photo of my first Great Barred-frog (Mixophyes fasciolatus)! Just windy with showers here on the Gold Coast. Had what seemed like inches over the last couple of days - mushrooms popping up everywhere and the ground is saturated. >Regards, >John, The Noon Coastal Wind Warning and the 0100UTC (11am) Ocean Wind Warning issued by the BoM are pasted below. Regards, Carl. >IDW00Q00 >BUREAU OF METEOROLOGY >QUEENSLAND REGION >BRISBANE OFFICE > >Media: The Emergency Warning Signal should NOT be used with this warning. > > >GALE AND STRONG WIND WARNING FOR SMALL CRAFT >Issued at 12:04pm on Tuesday the 2nd of May 2000 > >for coastal waters from Yeppoon to Coolangatta > >A 1032 hPa high was centred in the eastern Tasman Sea. A 1007 hPa low was >located to the near north of St Lawrence and weakening rapidly. A second >low was >located about 280 nm east northeast of Yeppoon and is moving west at 20 >knots. > > >Expect E/SE winds 25/33 knots increasing to 30/35 knots between Yeppoon >and Cape >Moreton tonight. Seas and swells 4 to 5 metres in open waters. > >Winds will ease during Wednesday. >IDW01Q00 >SECURITE > >HIGH SEAS WEATHER WARNING FOR METAREA 10 ISSUED BY THE AUSTRALIAN BUREAU OF >METEOROLOGY, BRISBANE 0056UTC 2 MAY 2000 > >GALE WARNING FOR NORTH EASTERN AREA > >= SITUATION >The tropical low with central pressure 1006 hectopascals centred at 020000 UTC >near 21.8 south 149.5 east has weakened further over the past six hours. A >second low with central pressure 1003 hectopascals centred near 21.4 south >155.5 >east is moving west at 20 knots. > >= AREA AFFECTED >An area east of 154.0 east and between the second low centre near 21.4 south >155.5 east and latitude 27.0 south, contracting westward to the Queensland >coast >later today and overnight. > >Expect SE to E winds 35 knots for the next 12 to 24 hours. Very rough >seas and >heavy swells. > >= FORECAST >Forecast position at 021200 UTC near 21.4 S 151.5 E and slowly weakening. > > >= REMARKS >All Ships in the area please send weather reports every three hours. > >= WEATHER BRISBANE + +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ X-Sender: astroman at mail.chariot.net.au X-Mailer: QUALCOMM Windows Eudora Version 4.3.1 Date: Tue, 02 May 2000 16:08:45 +0930 To: aussie-weather at world.std.com From: Andrew Wall Subject: aus-wx: #Weather Footy Tips Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Hey Fellow Tipsters, It is that time of the week to send out a reminder for you all to do your footy tips. Weatherhead (Dann) has finally toppled of the top of the ladder after getting 2 (4points) in the weekends round just gone. At the top now sits Disco-wx on 82.5 points followed by fellow West Aussie Howie on 78.5. Weatherhead is now in 3rd on 77.5. Ira brings up the rear of the ladder on 62.5 Make sure your tips are in by 7.35pm EST 5.35pm WST this Friday. Goodluck Kathryn Jolly & Jacob Aufdemkampe +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ X-Sender: carls at ford.ace-net.com.au Date: Tue, 2 May 2000 17:35:19 +1000 To: Aussie Weather List From: Carl Smith Subject: aus-wx: SUMMARY: March TC Summary - Part 1 Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com MONTHLY GLOBAL TROPICAL CYCLONE SUMMARY MARCH, 2000 (For general comments about the nature of these summaries, as well as information on how to download the tabular cyclone track files, see the Author's Note at the end of this summary.) SPECIAL NOTE: The March summary is being issued in two installments. This first installment covers the South Indian Ocean and the South Pacific basins. The second installment, covering the Australian Region and the North Indian Ocean, will be issued later. *********************************************************************** MARCH HIGHLIGHTS --> Tropical Cyclone Steve almost circumnavigates Australia --> South Pacific east of Dateline sees more activity --> Another major South Indian Ocean cyclone develops *********************************************************************** ACTIVITY BY BASINS ATLANTIC (ATL) - North Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico Activity for March: No tropical cyclones *********************************************************************** NORTHEAST PACIFIC (NEP) - North Pacific Ocean East of Longitude 180 Activity for March: No tropical cyclones *********************************************************************** NORTHWEST PACIFIC (NWP) - North Pacific Ocean West of Longitude 180 Activity for March: No tropical cyclones *********************************************************************** NORTH INDIAN OCEAN (NIO) - Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea Activity for March: 1 tropical depression ** ** - No warnings were issued on this system by JTWC, but IMD at one point referred to it as a cyclonic storm. NOTE!!! The North Indian Ocean will be covered in the second installment of this summary, which hopefully will be ready within the first two weeks of May. *********************************************************************** SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN (SIO) - South Indian Ocean West of Longitude 90E Activity for March: 1 tropical disturbance 1 tropical depression 1 intense tropical cyclone The primary sources of information upon which the narrative is based are the warnings issued by the TCWC on La Reunion Island, associated with Meteo France, and which is the RSMC for the South Indian Ocean basin. However, cyclones in this region are named by the sub-regional centres on Mauritius and Madagascar with longitude 55E as the dividing line between their respective areas. La Reunion only advises these centres regarding the intensity of tropical systems. References to sustained winds should be understood as meaning a 10-min averaging period unless otherwise stated. In the accompanying tracks file some position comparisons have been made with JTWC's positions, and warnings from JTWC were used as a source of 1-min avg MSW estimates. Also, the comments about satellite imagery and other sources of data such as SSM/I and TRMM were obtained for the most part from the JTWC warnings. South Indian Ocean Activity for March ------------------------------------- As the month of March opened Tropical Storm Gloria was making landfall in extreme northern Madagascar with the remnants drifting across the island over the next several days. Rainfall from the storm led to significant flooding with almost 150 lives lost. (See the February summary for the history of Tropical Storm Gloria.) Also, as the month began two more tropical systems were showing signs of development farther east in the South Indian Ocean. The first of these was a tropical depression which formed just west of 90E on 1 Mar. This system was referred to as Tropical Depression #9 by MFR and as TC-17S by JTWC. MFR and JTWC both initiated bulletins on the LOW on 1 Mar when it was located about 525 nm west of Cocos Island. MFR upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression (10-min avg MSW < 27 kts) on 2 Mar at 0600 UTC. The depression drifted very slowly generally westward and then southwestward over the next several days, reaching a point about 700 nm southeast of Diego Garcia by 0000 UTC on 5 Mar. The system was weakening and JTWC wrote its last warning, and La Reunion downgraded it back to a tropical disturbance but continued to follow it for another couple of days. The system reversed its heading and moved slowly on an easterly track, briefly regaining tropical depression status on 6 Mar but weakening again on the 7th. MFR wrote their final bulletin at 1200 UTC with the weakening center about 850 nm southeast of Diego Garcia. MSW estimates from both warning centers did not exceed 30 kts for this depression. Another system was designated as Tropical Disturbance #10 by La Reunion on 2 and 3 Mar. This disturbance formed about 250 nm south- southeast of Diego Garcia and remained quasi-stationary for most of its short life with perhaps a slight southward drift. The highest 10-min avg MSW estimated by MFR was only 25 kts with perhaps some winds reaching 30 kts locally well away from the center. A track is given for this system in the accompanying tracks file since it was assigned Dvorak numbers of T2.0 and would likely have been considered a tropical depression in some other basins. JTWC never issued any warnings or Formation Alerts on this LOW, although it was given a Fair development potential at one point. The major tropical development of the month in the Southwest Indian basin was Tropical Cyclone Hudah which formed on 25 Mar just east of the boundary with Perth's AOR. Since the rapidly developing system was leaving their territory, Perth did not name the cyclone and it was named Hudah as it crossed 90E into the Mauritius/La Reunion AOR. By month's end Hudah had strengthened into an intense cyclone and was drawing closer to northern Madagascar. Tropical Cyclone Hudah (TC-21S / SIO #12) 24 March - 9 April ------------------------------------------ Intense Tropical Cyclone Hudah had many affinities with February's great Tropical Cyclone Leon-Eline. Both formed in the Southeast Indian Ocean in Perth's AOR, moved on fairly straight westerly tracks across the entire South Indian, struck Madagascar as intense tropical cyclones, weakened, then regained intensity in the Mozambique Channel and made final landfalls in Mozambique. Hudah was smaller in areal extent than Eline but was considerably more intense at its peak and at its landfall in Madagascar. However, Hudah did not become as intense in the Channel as Eline did and was weakening some when it made landfall in northern Mozambique. These two cyclones represent what could be regarded as the South Indian Ocean's counterpart to the Atlantic's famous "Cape Verde hurricanes"--great storms which form in the eastern reaches of the respective basins and manage to travel on westerly courses for thousands of miles to wreak havoc on islands and continents at the western sides of the oceans. A Tropical Weather Outlook issued by JTWC on 22 Mar at 1800 UTC noted that an area of convection had formed approximately 370 nm southeast of Christmas Island. Animated satellite imagery showed disorganized weak convection associated with a broad circulation embedded in the monsoon trough. A CIMSS analysis revealed weak vertical shear with good outflow aloft. The disturbance was given a Fair development potential on 23 Mar as the LLCC appeared to be better defined with persistent though still disorganized convection. At 1800 UTC the LLCC was located roughly 240 nm south-southeast of Cocos Island. Vertical shear had increased slightly but the potential for development was still rated Fair. JTWC issued a Formation Alert at 0030 UTC on 24 Mar. The system was by then southwest of Cocos Island and moving west at 15 kts with winds estimated at 20-25 kts. Moderate convection was building around the LLCC with animated water vapor imagery indicating improved upper- level outflow and decreasing vertical shear. At 1200 UTC JTWC issued its first warning on TC-21S with the center located approximately 300 nm west-southwest of Cocos Island. Animated visible and infrared imagery depicted a small system with an areal extent of 100 nm. A CDO appeared to be developing over the LLCC with a banding feature in the northwest quadrant. The 200-mb ridge axis was located just south of the system. The Perth TCWC had begun issuing warnings on the LOW at 24/1000 UTC. As the system approached 90E early on 25 Mar it began to show signs of rapid intensification. Dvorak ratings on the system from JTWC increased from T=2.5 at 0351 UTC, to T=3.5 at 0620 UTC, and to T=4.5 at 1215 UTC. Perth also rated the storm at T=4.5 at 0830 UTC. JTWC assigned a MSW (1-min avg) of 55 kts at 0600 UTC and 70 kts at 1200 UTC. 200-mb analysis indicated good divergence over the system with the ridge axis just to the south. Perth, in its final warning, indicated that the LOW had reached tropical cyclone intensity, but as the system was about to leave their AOR, did not assign a name. The developing storm was named Tropical Storm Hudah by the Mauritius Meteorological Service as soon as it crossed 90E at a point almost 500 nm west-southwest of Cocos Island. The radius of 50-kt winds was only 20 nm while gales extended out 90 nm to the south and 65 nm elsewhere (this information from JTWC's warning). A small, cloud-filled eye was evident by 25/1200 UTC with the eye half-enclosed by a deep convective wall in the northern quadrant. By 1800 UTC the intensification trend had leveled off some with cloud tops having warmed and the warm eye no longer evident. There was good divergence still located over Hudah, however, and the storm maintained its intensity of 55 kts (10-min avg) from Reunion and 65 kts (1-min avg) from JTWC. A weak eye was apparent in a SSM/I pass at 26/0338 UTC with a later pass indicating a convective band in the northern quadrant. JTWC maintained Hudah's intensity at 65 kts during the 26th while MFR (Reunion) increased their 10-min avg wind estimate to 60 kts at 1200 UTC. Hudah intensified on 27 Mar with satellite imagery revealing a 7-nm wide eye by 0600 UTC. MFR upgraded Hudah to a tropical cyclone (hurricane) with 70-kt winds at 1200 UTC when the storm was centered about 650 nm southeast of Diego Garcia. (JTWC's 1-min MSW estimate had reached 80 kts at 0600 UTC.) By 1800 UTC Dvorak numbers were a solid T5.0 and JTWC increased their MSW estimate to 90 kts. SSM/I data indicated a well-developed symmetric eye with a significant banding feature over the southern half of the cyclone. The deepest convection was to be found in the western half of the eyewall. Hudah was still a small cyclone with hurricane force winds confined to an area within about 20 nm or less from the center. Gales likely did not extend out any further than 90-100 nm from the eye to the south, and lesser distances in the other quadrants. Tropical Cyclone Hudah continued to move on a generally westward course across the central South Indian Ocean, moving a little to the west-southwest on 28-29 Mar before resuming a straight westerly track on 30 Mar. The cyclone maintained good outflow with the upper-level anticyclone intensifying a bit on 28 Mar. MFR increased the maximum 10-min avg wind estimate to 80 kts at 28/0000 UTC and to 85 kts by 0600 UTC on the 29th. JTWC reported the MSW (1-min avg) at 100 kts at 28/1200 UTC but brought it back down to 90 kts twelve hours later. Infrared and water vapor imagery revealed well-defined outflow channels to the north and east of the LLCC with the most significant convective band over the southern part of the system. Hudah passed about 550 nm south of Diego Garcia at 29/0000 UTC. The anticyclone aloft over the cyclone showed some signs of weakening and enhanced infrared imagery on 30 Mar showed Hudah to be undergoing some slight shearing from the southwest. MFR lowered the intensity to 70 kts at 30/1800 UTC while JTWC decreased the MSW estimate to 80 kts. Hudah remained a small system with the radius of gales to the south not much more than 100 nm. The storm passed about 150 nm to the north of Rodrigues Island around 0600 UTC on 31 Mar, still moving to the west. By the 31st the cyclone was showing some improved convective organization along with a decrease in the shearing; consequently, the maximum winds began to increase once more. JTWC upped their MSW estimate to 100 kts at 1200 UTC with animated visible imagery revealing a 20-nm diameter eye. Likewise, MFR increased the maximum 10-min avg wind estimate to 100 kts in their 1800 UTC warning. A TRMM pass at 31/2047 UTC depicted an intense, symmetric system with a 24-nm wide cloud-free eye. SSM/I data showed the eyewall completely surrounding the LLCC. Based on satellite intensity estimates of 115 and 127 kts, JTWC increased their MSW estimate to 120 kts at 0000 UTC on 1 Apr when Hudah was centered approximately 225 nm northeast of Mauritius. So, as the month of April opened, Tropical Cyclone Hudah was an already intense and still intensifying storm moving steadily toward what would be a devastating strike on northern Madagascar. The remainder of Hudah's history will be covered in the April summary. *********************************************************************** AUSTRALIAN REGION (AUG) - From Longitude 90E Eastward to Longitude 160E Activity for March: 1 gale center (non-tropical) 3 tropical LOWs ** 2 tropical cyclones ++ 1 severe tropical cyclone (hurricane) ** - One of these was named Tropical Cyclone Tessi on 1 April and will be covered in the April summary. ++ - One of these was Tropical Cyclone Steve which began in February. NOTE!!! The Australian Region will be covered in the second installment of this summary, which hopefully will be ready within the first two weeks of May. *********************************************************************** SOUTHWEST PACIFIC (SWP) - South Pacific Ocean East of Longitude 160E Activity for March: 1 tropical depression ** 1 tropical cyclone of storm intensity 1 tropical cyclone of hurricane intensity ** - System moved into Australian Region in early April and developed into Tropical Cyclone Vaughan. Most of the information presented below was taken from the operational warnings and advisories issued by the Fiji TCWC at Nadi. References to sustained winds imply a 10-minute averaging period unless otherwise noted. Also, the basic definition of a cyclone in WMO Region 5 (Australia and the South Pacific) has the unique requirement that a depression must have gale-force winds more-or-less completely surrounding the center before the system is named as a tropical cyclone. Hence, often gales of 35-40 kts may be present in one or two quadrants but the system is not considered a tropical cyclone. Last season Fiji initiated their own numbering scheme for tropical disturbances (01F, 02F, etc) that form in the Nadi AOR. Some of the numbered disturbances never warrant depression status. The reports on Tropical Cyclones Leo and Mona were written by Alipate Waqaicelua, Chief Forecaster at the Nadi TCWC, with only minimal editing by myself. A very special thanks to Alipate for sending me the summaries and the cyclone tracks. Also, a special thanks to Steve Ready of the New Zealand Meteorological Service for sending me some damage reports and synoptic observations regarding Leo and Mona. Southwest Pacific Activity for March ------------------------------------ As was the case with February, tropical cyclone development in the South Pacific was confined to the area east of the 180th meridian. Leo formed on the 6th from a TUTT-initiated disturbance and was named as a tropical cyclone just before leaving Nadi's AOR. The cyclone reached storm intensity as it sped southward and southeastward through Wellington's AOR. Mona began forming at about the same time near Samoa and eventually reached hurricane force after having moved through some of the islands in the Kingdom of Tonga, causing moderate damage. From around 9-12 Mar a system northwest of Vanuatu was designated as Tropical Disturbance 16F. This LOW developed in a monsoon trough with good westerlies to the north and an easterly surge to the south from a HIGH in the Tasman Sea. The disturbance was in an area under good diffluence and low vertical shear, but convection was not able to become well-organized and the system was never referred to as a tropical depression. No track is given for this system in the accompanying tracks file. Another disturbance late in the month formed in the same general area, tracked to the south, and became a tropical depression (17F). The depression eventually moved westward into the Australian Region on 2 Apr where it developed into Tropical Cyclone Vaughan on 3 Apr. (This system will be covered in its entirety in the April summary.) Tropical Cyclone Leo (TC-18P / TC-14F) 5 - 9 March --------------------------------------- Tropical Depression 14F was first identified by RSMC Nadi as a tropical disturbance around 04/0600 UTC, almost stationary, and located about 60 nm west-northwest of French Polynesia under a TUTT. In the next 24 hours the disturbance had developed into a tropical depression, drifting slowly southwwestward, but remaining just north of an upper- level anticyclone in a diffluent region of relatively weak to moderate shear. Convection had also increased with weak indications of spiral bands forming. SSTs were around 28-29 C and the potential at that point for development into a tropical cyclone within the next 48 hours was moderate and anticipated to increase further. At 05/0000 UTC the first gale warning was issued for the depression warning of gales within certain sectors of the system. The depression was centered about 300 nm west-southwest of Tahiti at the time. Overnight on the 5th the system continued to develop and moved farther southwest through the Southern Cooks, which registered significant 24-hour pressure falls. After 06/0000 UTC the system underwent some weakening under increasing shear. The depression was then moving under an upper-level (250 mb) shortwave trough. Cold convective tops also warmed and overall organisation decreased. However, after 06/0600 UTC the system, now located about 100 nm south- southwest of Rarotonga in the Southern Cooks, re-intensified with spiral bands wrapping tightly around the LLCC. Convection increased considerably over the LLCC with tops cooling. Overall organisation went through a very remarkable change--development was almost explosive. TD-14F was named Tropical Cyclone Leo at 1200 UTC on 6 Mar when it was centered about 325 nm west-southwest of Mangaia in the Southern Cooks. The cyclone accelerated south-southwestward away from the Cook Islands and continued to intensify as it crossed the 25th parallel and entered Wellington's AOR. Leo reached a peak intensity of 50 kts at 07/0000 UTC and maintained its strength for about 24 hrs. After 1800 UTC the storm began to recurve to the southeast and by 0000 UTC on the 8th was becoming extratropical as it came under strong shear and encountered much cooler SSTs. While still a tropical depression Leo passed over the small island of Mangaia (southwest of Rarotonga) between 1200 and 1800 UTC on 5 Mar. No damage reports have been received and it is likely that any damage incurred on Mangaia would have been very minor. (This information from Steve Ready of the New Zealand Meteorological Service.) Tropical Cyclone Mona (TC-19P / TC-15F) 7 - 13 March ---------------------------------------- Close to the same time that Leo (14F) was named, around 06/0900 UTC, another tropical disturbance was identified by RSMC Nadi, located about 70 nm south of Apia, Western Samoa, along the SPCZ and moving slowly southwestward. At this time the system was lying under the 250-mb outflow centre with good diffluence over it. Convection was also increasing and organisation improving, especially during the preceding 12 hours. By 07/0600 UTC the disturbance had developed further into a tropical depression, prompting the first Gale Warning, though in certain sectors only, within 90 nm of the centre. The depression was then located about 120 nm southeast of Niuatoputapu in Northern Tonga and moving southward at about 5 kts. At 07/1800 UTC the depression was located near Vavau, in Central Tonga, and moving southwestward but clearly well-organised, as seen in visible imagery. The first Special Weather Bulletin (SWB) for Tonga was then issued (subsequent bulletins were issued every three hours), warning of damaging gales or stronger winds during the next 24 hours, especially for Vavau, Haapai, and Tongatapu groups and nearby smaller islands. Though the depression was generally developing, diurnal effects together with some shear were still evident, as after 08/0000 UTC, deep convective tops had warmed somewhat and the LLCC became displaced a little to the west. However, after 08/0600 UTC convection, especially near the centre, erupted and outflow in all quadrants was well-developed. The LLCC had also moved under the deep convection, which had significantly increased spatially. Hence, at 08/1200 UTC, TD-15F was named Tropical Cyclone Mona with winds of 35 to 40 kts and located about 40 nm west of Haapai or about 70 nm north of Tongatapu. The cyclone remained slow-moving but was expected to gradually move southward under a northerly to northwesterly steering field. The whole Tongatapu Group was put on Storm Warning in the 7th SWB for Tonga which was issued around 08/1500 UTC, and mentioned winds increasing to destructive storm force in the next 12 to 18 hours. In the same bulletin Vavau and Haapai groups were still under Gale Warning. Vavau was cleared from the Gale Warning at 08/2100 UTC. Mona attained storm intensity (>47 kts) by 08/1800 UTC while located about 110 nm west-southwest of Haapai or 30 nm northwest of Tongatapu and moving south-southwestward at 5 kts. Indications of an eye appeared at 09/0000 UTC, suggesting further intensification and possibly attainment of hurricane intensity. The International Marine Warning was upgraded to hurricane intensity at 09/0600 UTC with the persistence of the eye, which was cloud-filled. At this time the cyclone was located about 30 nm west of Tongatapu and moving south- southeastward at about 5 kts under a mean deep northerly current. At 09/1200 UTC the Gale Warning for Haapai was cancelled and the Storm Warning for Tongatapu downgraded to a Gale Warning. The final Gale Warning for Tongatapu was issued at 09/1800 UTC as Mona turned further away from the Kingdom. The cyclone continued south-southeastward, gaining speed as it headed towards Wellington's AOR. This slight acceleration together with diffluence created by the retrogressive upper-level trough augmented the intensity to 70 kts by 0600 UTC on 10 Mar when Mona's centre was located about 200 nm southeast of Tongatapu. (NPMOC's peak 1-min MSW estimate at this time was 80 kts which represents excellent agreement with Nadi.) The lowest CP estimate in Mona's history, also at 10/0600 UTC, was 965 mb. Warning responsibility was handed over to Wellington at 1200 UTC with the cyclone still at its peak intensity of 70 kts. However, Mona began to weaken rather rapidly as it sped off to the south and had become extratropical by 1200 UTC on 11 Mar. The remnant extratropical LOW still produced gales for another couple of days as it moved southward and then rapidly east- southeastward as it got caught up in the westerlies. Damage, especially in Vavau and Haapai groups, was mainly to crops, primarily to banana, breadfruit and coconut plantations. In Tongatapu moderate damage was sustained by houses (mainly those of poorer construction) and by some school buildings. The unofficial damage assessment, according to the Tongan National Disaster Management Office, totalled Tongan $6 million. Of this amount T$4.7 million was to agriculture alone. A police patrol boat sank off Eua Island in the Tongatapu group. Surge/swell also affected Tongatapu. Coconut plantations are still recovering from Tropical Cyclone Cora which affected them in December, 1998. Strongest winds/lowest pressures experienced are given below: Vavau: 07/1900 UTC, 10-min winds 34 kts/Gust 54 kts, Pressure 999 mb Haapai: 08/1100 UTC, 10-min winds 30 kts/Gust 45 kts, Pressure 1003 mb Fua'motu Airport (Tongatapu): 08/1500 & 09/1500 UTC, 10-min winds 50 kts/Gust 75 kts, Pressure 999 mb Nuku'alofa (Capital of Tonga, on Tongatapu): 08/1500 & 09/1500 UTC, 10-min winds 44 kts/Gust 65 kts, Pressure 998 mb One can see that the wind/pressure relationship typical of "normal" cyclones is clearly not valid with Mona. This does suggest the existence of strong gradients outward, which would then qualify Mona as a small (or even midget) cyclone. *********************************************************************** EXTRA FEATURE In order to shorten the amount of typing in preparing the narrative material, I have been in the habit of freely using abbreviations and acronyms. I have tried to define most of these with the first usage in a given summary, but I may have missed one now and then. Most of these are probably understood by a majority of readers but perhaps a few aren't clear to some. To remedy this I developed a Glossary of Abbreviations and Acronyms which I included in the July, 1998 summary. I will include this glossary from time to time, primarily in "lean" months without a lot of tropical cyclone activity to cover. But if anyone missed receiving it and wishes to obtain a copy, send me an e-mail privately and I'll forward them a copy. *********************************************************************** AUTHOR'S NOTE: This summary should be considered a very preliminary overview of the tropical cyclones that occur in each month. The cyclone tracks (provided separately) will generally be based upon operational warnings issued by the various tropical cyclone warning centers. The information contained therein may differ somewhat from the tracking and intensity information obtained from a "best-track" file which is based on a detailed post-seasonal analysis of all available data. Information on where to find official "best-track" files from the various warning centers will be passed along from time to time. The track files are not being sent via e-mail. They can be retrieved in the following manner: (a) FTP to: hrd-type42.nhc.noaa.gov [140.90.176.206] (b) Login as: anonymous (c) For a password use your e-mail address (d) Go to "data" subdirectory (Type: cd data) (e) Set file type to ASCII (Type: ascii) (f) Transfer file (Type: get remote_file_name local_file_name ) (The files will be named with an obvious nomenclature--using March as an example: mar00.tracks) (g) To exit FTP, type: quit Both the summaries and the track files are standard text files created in DOS editor. Download to disk and use a viewer such as Notepad or DOS editor to view the files. The first summary in this series covered the month of October, 1997. If anyone wishes to retrieve any of the previous summaries, they may be downloaded from the aforementioned FTP site at HRD. The summary files are catalogued with the nomenclature: mar00.sum, for example. Back issues can also be obtained from the following websites (courtesy of Michael Bath, Michael V. Padua, Tom Berg, Michael Pitt, and Rich Henning): Another website where much information about tropical cyclones may be found is the website for the UK Meteorological Office. Their site contains a lot of statistical information about tropical cyclones globally on a monthly basis. The URL is: TROPICAL CYCLONE REPORTS AVAILABLE I have discovered that JTWC now has available on its new website the complete Annual Tropical Cyclone Report (ATCR) for 1998 (1997-1998 season for the Southern Hemisphere). Also, ATCRs for earlier years are available also. The URL is: Also, TPC/NHC has available on its webpage nice "technicolor" tracking charts for the 1999 Atlantic and Eastern North Pacific tropical cyclones; also, preliminary storm reports for all the 1999 Atlantic and Eastern North Pacific cyclones are now available. The URL is: Prepared by: Gary Padgett E-mail: garyp at alaweb.com Phone: 334-222-5327 (nights & weekends) / 850-882-2594 (weekdays) *********************************************************************** *********************************************************************** +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ Date: Tue, 02 May 2000 18:16:20 +1000 From: Andrew Miskelly X-Mailer: Mozilla 4.04 [en] (Win95; I) To: Aussie Weather Subject: aus-wx: Northward Movement of Ridge? Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Hi all, The latest media charts (http://www.bom.gov.au/products/IDG00V56.shtml) show the high that is following this very promising trough currently over E Aus to actually be NORTH OF THE BIGHT!! Hell, that's uncharacteristic! Hopefully it's a trend. Meanwhile this trough (at it's best on Thur?) looks like one of the best I've seen over NSW for a while. Hopefully it gets lower and the high in the Pacific gets higher. Andrew. -- Andrew Miskelly Illawarra/Southern Tablelands, NSW amiskelly at ozemail.com.au +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ Date: Tue, 02 May 2000 18:22:17 +1000 From: Andrew Miskelly X-Mailer: Mozilla 4.04 [en] (Win95; I) To: Aussie Weather Subject: aus-wx: Electronic Temperature Sensors Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Hi...again, I have recently got around to getting myself an external thermometer for my ute, as I'm sure alot of you already have. The problem is, now I have to work out the best position on the vehicle (as I mentioned, a ute) to put the sensor so it's accurate whether I'm going down the Hume at 110 or parked in the back yard. I'm thinking of putting it in the small gap between cab and tray (so the air flow is good and not as affected by engine heat as under the tray, and there is little direct sunlight) but I would like to know if anyone with more idea of the nature of eletric sensors has a bettr idea first. Anyone...? Andrew. -- Andrew Miskelly Illawarra/Southern Tablelands, NSW amiskelly at ozemail.com.au +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ From: "Ben Tichborne" To: Subject: aus-wx: Re: aussie-weather-digest V1 #569 Date: Tue, 2 May 2000 20:34:07 +1200 Organization: Private X-Mailer: Microsoft Outlook Express 5.00.2919.6600 Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com > (I'm sure all of you have done that!), the pressure gradient between this > low and the high near New Zealand should generate some respectable wave > heights over south east Queensland and northeastern NSW. That high near NZ has brought fine weather over here for several days now, in fact for almost a week now. Here in Chch, the last few days have seen maximums near 20 C, though nights have been verging on frost. This is after a stormy late Easter/ Anzac weekend, which brought thunder and hailstorms to many parts of the North Island (especially Wellington), plus good early snow to the mountains and skifields. (snow down as low as 850 metres in Hawkes Bay mountains on 25th) Ben Tichborne Christchurch NZ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ Date: Tue, 02 May 2000 19:14:11 +1000 From: MSC X-Mailer: Mozilla 4.05 [en] (Win95; I) To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Subject: Re: aus-wx: Electronic Temperature Sensors Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Andrew, up behind the front bumper isn't a bad place to be - mine tends to stabilise slower than some others because it's a fairly deep bumper (VR Commodore) but within a couple of kms of starting off it's reading accurately - and it's very sensistive to minor temp changes - I check constantly going over the creek every monring - change some mornings will be 0.1C. Also haven't lost it ploughing through water across the road or going through paddocks Jane -------------------------------- Jane ONeill cadence at rubix.net.au Melbourne Storm Chasers http://www.rubix.net.au/~cadence ASWA - Victoria http://www.severeweather.asn.au "..thinking outside the square" -------------------------------- Andrew Miskelly wrote: > > Hi...again, > > I have recently got around to getting myself an external thermometer for > my ute, as I'm sure alot of you already have. The problem is, now I have > to work out the best position on the vehicle (as I mentioned, a ute) to > put the sensor so it's accurate whether I'm going down the Hume at 110 > or parked in the back yard. I'm thinking of putting it in the small gap > between cab and tray (so the air flow is good and not as affected by > engine heat as under the tray, and there is little direct sunlight) but > I would like to know if anyone with more idea of the nature of eletric > sensors has a bettr idea first. > > Anyone...? > > Andrew. > > -- > Andrew Miskelly > Illawarra/Southern Tablelands, NSW > amiskelly at ozemail.com.au > +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ > To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com > with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your > message. > -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ Date: Tue, 02 May 2000 19:41:34 -0700 From: Lindsay X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (Win16; I) To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Subject: Re: aus-wx: Northward Movement of Ridge? Sender: aussie-weather-approval at world.std.com Reply-To: aussie-weather at world.std.com Oh Andrew, don't get me too excited! I've been so sick this last week (awaiting test results as I write) so I've been reading a fair bit about weather etc and I was getting a bit down about those bloody highs. I actually had a dream about a big snow dump the other night, god, I'm a tragic! Lindsay Pearce Andrew Miskelly wrote: > > Hi all, > > The latest media charts (http://www.bom.gov.au/products/IDG00V56.shtml) > show the high that is following this very promising trough currently > over E Aus to actually be NORTH OF THE BIGHT!! Hell, that's > uncharacteristic! > > Hopefully it's a trend. Meanwhile this trough (at it's best on Thur?) > looks like one of the best I've seen over NSW for a while. Hopefully it > gets lower and the high in the Pacific gets higher. > > Andrew. > > -- > Andrew Miskelly > Illawarra/Southern Tablelands, NSW > amiskelly at ozemail.com.au > +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ > To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com > with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your > message. > -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ To unsubscribe from aussie-weather send e-mail to:majordomo at world.std.com with "unsubscribe aussie-weather your_email_address" in the body of your message. -----------------------jacob at iinet.net.au------------------------------